Chapter+Questions


 * Chapter 1:**

1) What was North America like at the time of Columbus?

At the time of Columbus, all of North America was in fact densely populated by Native Americans. In Mexico the Aztecs built fantastic structures and worshipped their multiple gods by sacrificing humans. In the southwest of what is now America, the Pueblo Indians dug irrigation systems. In the Northeast, the Woodland Indians made great agricultural developments with the most diverse food source in North America, and in the Great White North of what is now Canada, Eskimos fished, hunted seal, and built totem poles to worship their gods. By the time Columbus arrived the North American population rivaled or even exceeded that of European countries.

2) What were the elements of biological and cultural exchange occurring between Europeans and Native Americans?

As Columbus made contact with North American populations and subsequently opened up the trade between Europe and the America’s, the trade increased tenfold. The Native Americans introduced maize to the Europeans; the Europeans introduced the horse to the Native Americans. With all this trading, several European diseases were introduced to the Americas; while the Europeans had built up immune systems to fight these, the Native Americans were left defenseless. Some conquistadors, such as Hernan Cortez, used this as a military tactic by infecting the Native Americans, and an epidemic similar to the Black Plague occurred, killing a third of the Native American population. The Europeans also introduced European religions such as Christianity to the Native Americans, and as more and more European settlements formed, intermarriage between Europeans and Native Americans occurred.

3) What changes were taking place in Western Europe that resulted in widespread interest in colonization?

In 15th and 16th century Europe, an idea sprung up that the world had a fixed wealth and that in order to become wealthier, the wealth of another nation must be taken. When Western Europe first heard of the vast amount of riches in the Americas, many nations began seeking colonization there and mining the various resources the new world had to offer, whether it was farming, mining, or hunting. The changes were also on less of a large scale, as many went to the Americas for religious reasons; some went to inspire the natives to join, some went for religious freedom. Some went to the Americas in hope of establishing a utopia, a perfect society free of social disturbances and ills. The idea, popularized by Thomas More, made many travel to the new world to liberate themselves from these, which of course would never be able to work.

4) What were the major motivations for those leaving Europe to settle in America and what different types of colonies were established? The main reason for most Europeans leaving their countries to settle in and colonize the Americas was wealth, and obtaining as much of it as possible. Several merchants in the Americas formed companies that were established and run on order of the King. These companies were largely successful, while other, privately-owned companies were rather not. Several Europeans went to the new world for religious purposes, most seeking religious freedom from the oppressive churches of England. Some also sought out to draw in new members to their church, and thus a large percentage of natives left their own religions. Those sick of their lives being confined and oppressed in Western Europe went for new ones. Several colonies formed as a result of all of the Europeans immigrating, including religious ones (some new, some from Western Europe), and some based strictly towards trade.

5) Describe the origins of the African slave trade in general and the origins of African slaves being brought to America in specific.

In African civilizations located in what is now Ghana and Mali, slavery was originally a punishment for criminal acts. However, most slaves were not enslaved for their entire lives, and their children were not born into slavery. They had several rights, like marrying and owning property. Slaves were often bought or sold through trade by their owners. When the Portuguese began sailing down the west coast of Africa, slaves were often purchases and brought back to Europe. After Europeans began establishing colonies in North and South America, the demand for slaves began to dramatically increase. One particular industry which had a high demand for African slaves was the sugar cane industry, primarily located in the Caribbean and other islands in that area. The desire for the highest profit possible created the need for wageless workers, which hence made the African slave trade so popular to Europeans.

Chapter 2:


1) How were the Caribbean colonies significant in the British-American colonial system?

The Caribbean islands were actually the most popular destination for English migrants in the early 17th century. It offered a warm climate and a multitude of opportunities for jobs and labor. White men often worked in the sugar cane fields. Sugar cane was a popular crop in the world at the time, and was highly demanded in Europe, especially England, and with the preferred climate for the crop, it was farmed in the Caribbean islands. With the demand for the crop came a demand for workers, and African slaves were often bought and brought over and more often than not worked to death working in the sugar cane fields, sometimes with white slaves as well.

2) How did the Glorious Revolution impact the development of the British-American colonies? The Glorious Revolution, in which Parliament made an agreement with King James II’s daughter, Mary, and her husband, William, to overthrow him from the crown due to him trying to assert his powers over Parliament, resulted in the king being banished from England. With the king M.I.A., the royal colonies and chartered companies in America were suddenly without a tip of their hierarchy. As a result, several of the colonies established

3) What were conditions like in Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony? Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony was a very religious society. Working very hard, they were oftentimes very joyless or souless. The colonists strived to live strict, conciencious lives. They were also very serious. Being a strictly Puritan society, church and government went hand-in-hand, a.k.a. a theocratical society. Being so religious, they were very intolerant, and they often killed or banished those that spoke out against God and the bible, including Roger Williams, who later went on to form the colony of Rhode Island.

Chapter 3:
1) How did the plantation system emerge and what effects did it have?

Once tobacco became the economic basis of the Chesapeake Bay, plantations emerged in Virginia and Maryland. Utilizing slave labor, it allowed for more work with greater profit. With this, the southern economy bloomed into an extremely successful empire, with cash crops like tobacco and indigo at the heart of it, and slave labor as the blood. However, this meant that the economy became entirely and utterly dependent and crippled, to a point, on slave labor, meaning that if slave labor were to be eradicated the economy would collapse.

2) Why were there a variety of religious sects in the colonies and what effect did the Great Awakening have?

There were a variety of religious sects in the colonies simply because the conditions in the colonies required it. Colonists came to America from all over Europe and thus brought with them all sorts of religious practices from their originating countries, thus it was difficult to institute and impose a single religion to follow on all of the colonies. Some religious groups included the Church of England, Puritans, Jews, Baptists, etc. The Great Awakening provoked a large religious revival in America because it saw the benefits of religious practices spread to those who previously did not believe, and offered opportunities of redemption and hope to those who had none. After the Great Awakening, Americans had more faith and hope and values were treasured more.

**Chapter 4:**

1) What was the philosophy of revolt that emerged in the colonies? How much of the colonial uproar was economic and how much was political? The philosophy of revolt that emerged in the colonies was primarily that of wanting a new government. Previously the colonies were mostly not interfered with by England, and were given as much autonomy as possible. However, after the French and Indian War, being severely in debt, England realized just how incompetent the colonies were on sustaining a well, fair autonomy and began to enforce English government in the colonies unlike ever before. Not being used to this type of rule, the colonies wanted a new government. This led to uproar, some politically charged, as the colonists were upset that these new enforcements were without any representation in Parliament (even though the English did not recognize this concept at all, as Parliament was made up of senators from random places all over England), and some economically charged, as several acts enforced, such as the Navigation, Stamp, Sugar, and Tea acts, put taxes on several items, which the colonists then protested by not buying. 2) Identify, explain and analyze the three most important events that led to strong colonial desires for revolution. The French and Indian War was the start of the colonial desire for revolution. The war made light of several tensions between the colonies and England, even though the two seemed to work together quite effectively against their French and Indian enemies. The debt left by the war was quite great on England, and soon several taxes, tariffs, and laws were enforced on the colonies. These made the colonists quite angry, as they were not used to this kind of rule, but also because suddenly  3) From 1607 through 1774, to what extent was British rule of its American colonies mismanaged, corrupt, and counterproductive to the purposes of colonization?

Firstly, the purposes of colonization were initially to benefit England, economically and politically, with the offerings and opportunities of the Americas. Over time, this widened to benefit England globally, as the colonies increased their power over trade not just in the Americas but in Europe, Africa, and Asia, and with power over trade came political power.


 * Chapter 5:**

4) Describe the War Economy for the colonists. The time of the revolution was a transition period; America was no longer apart of England, thus America had no form of currency.  While trading sufficed in most places of the country, the Continental Congress knew the problem eventually had to be addressed and printed out paper currency to be used. As it turns out, this typically resulted in horrible inflation.  5) Describe the initial structure of American Republicanism, especially the setup of the national and state governments. The initial structure was intended to be based on the ideas of Republicanism: the people govern themselves and everyone has equal opportunities at success. Thus a weak central government was established and each state wrote its own constitution. All states believed that the constitution should be written down and the power of the executive should be weakened (some even got rid of the executive completely), but while the power was intended to be brought back to the people, every state had a legislature which was off-limits to the executive/governor, indicating two separate branches of government. 6) Should the war be called “the War for Independence” or “the American Revolution?” What is the difference, where do you stand, and why? The difference between the titles for the war “The War for Independence” and “the American Revolution” is that one of them has the word “independence” in it, and the other has the word “revolution” in it. The war from 1777 to 1781 was a war in which America liberated themselves from English rule for their own benefit; it started long before any real battles occurred, the colonists had been fighting English rule since the 1760’s. However, while after the war America immediately became independent, it took time for anything to truly be revolutionized (the Constitution or the Republican democracy of this country), thus while I really think that either title could apply, the war should really be identified as the War for Independence


 * Chapter 6:**



1) What is Federalism and how is the Constitution designed to make it work with regard to state sovereignty, centralization of powers, and balance of powers? Federalism is a system where sovereignty is divided amongst a single central government and several smaller sub-governments. The Constitution was written with a federalist government in mind, where there is a state government for each state and a powerful centralized government. It was also written to make this work, in several ways. The controversial representation folly came to a compromise as a decision was made to have a bilateral house plan, where one house would have 2 representatives from each state, and the other would have a number of representatives relative to that state’s population. There would also be checks and balances between the three branches of government, the executive branch, the judicial branch, and the legislative branch. These include how a governor cannot take part in a legislature. 2) What was Alexander Hamilton’s political philosophy and what were recommendations and plans as Secretary of Treasury (use p. 168, 169 AND 170)? Alexander Hamilton’s political philosophy was generally favored towards a Constitution that would be more powerful than the previously-appointed Articles of Confederation. While the AOC established a weak centralized government, it had been demonstrated that a more powerful document was needed. Later, Hamilton was appointed Secretary of Treasury. This proved a rather difficult job, as the country had amounted a large debt after the war, with no simple way to pay it off. Hamilton believed the debt shouldn’t be paid off, rather, there be a permanent national debt, with old bonds being paid off as new bonds were being sold. He also created the first Bank of the United States.  3) Describe the demographics of the Founding Fathers and the major differences in opinion and perspective that they embodied. The Founding Fathers were a group of men from various states that originally met to make changes to the Articles of Confederations, but instead made the Constitution, a stronger form of government that we still use today, thus giving the men the title of “founding fathers”. The founding fathers had a lot in common, such as they were all wealthy, land-owning, well educated middle-aged white males. However, their location was their primary difference between one another. Different geographical locations led to opposing views over forms of government, such as representation and slavery; this led to a compromise between two proposed plans, the Virginia and New Jersey plans. 4) How did the new American government deal with securing the frontier and Native Americans? In a particularly difficult decision, Jefferson bought the western territories owned by France from Napoleon for a measly $5 million.  5) What did Jay’s Treaty and Pinckney’s Treaty show about the new American government? The treaties that John Jay and Thomas Pinckney signed with the British and Spanish governments, respectively, showed that the new American government was willing to form alliances with former rivals to benefit itself and maybe the nation the treaty is being signed with. This also showed that the nation was trying to assert itself internationally, almost as to prove that America is to be taken serious as a country and showed confidence in diplomacy 6) What were the results of the XYZ affair? How did the XYZ Affair lead to the Alien and Sedition Acts and how did the Alien and Sedition Acts lead to the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? What did all of this show about America at the time? The direct result of the XYZ affair was outrage, and eventually an undeclared war with France. This conflict led to an increase in Federalist majority in Congress, and with this power the Federalists plotted to silence Republican opposition with the Alien and Sedition Acts, which placed obstacles in foreigners who wished to become citizens, and allowed the government to prosecute those who engaged in “sedition” against the government, respectively. The Republicans, outraged by this, laid out two sets of resolutions by Jefferson adopted by Virginia and Kentucky, which used the ideas of John Locke to argue against the federal government having that power over the states. This “back-and-forth” between the federalists and Republicans shows that politics in America at this time was heavily divided. 7) How did the Election of 1800 test the stability of the American political process and why are its results labeled the “Revolution of 1800?” The Election of 1800 was shaped by bitter controversies that stemmed from a feud between the Republican Party and the Federalist Party. The two parties had differing views on how the government should be run, and this came to a standoff in the Election of 1800. Between John Adams, running again for the Federalists, and Thomas Jefferson, running for the Republicans, the race was very intense and controversial, as the supporters of each candidate showed no mercy towards the other side. The very election seemed to tear the political system apart. With the election of Jefferson as president, the Republicans worked to preserve the rights that had been fought for in the War for Independence; overthrowing the Federalists was a “Revolution” of sorts.


 * Chapter 7: **

1) Describe the emerging sense of American nationalism in the early 19th century and the aspects of American culture that were developing.

The emerging sense of American nationalism began to develop simultaneously with an emerging American culture, and vice-versa. A Republican vision began to influence these primarily, as the centerpiece of the vision was the concept of a “well-being, enlightened independent citizenry.” Opportunities began to appear where there were previously no opportunities, to those who previously did not have opportunities, such as the creation of a working system of free public and higher education (for women and Indians, additionally), and medical breakthroughs. With the revolution of America from England, aspirations of an independent American culture that would rival those of Europe began from the minds of its citizens, and found expression through those new, previously unheard of opportunities.

2) What were the major political changes of Jefferson’s Presidency? What did these changes show? What was the impact of these changes?

With Jefferson’s winning of the election of 1800 over Adams came Jefferson’s mission statement of a “revolution as real as that of 1776,” and thus began a series of changes to American politics. Jefferson respected the two political parties that dominated America at the time, Republicans and Federalists, and while he himself possessed a Republican point-of-view, at times during his presidency Jefferson seemed to have out-Federalized the Federalists; acting upon their own point-of-view, Jefferson bought the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon and appointed Republicans in half of the government jobs, as the Federalists did during Adams time in office. These changes showed a

3) What was Jefferson’s constitutional philosophy and how did the Louisiana Purchase decision create a conflict for him?

Jefferson obeyed the rules set by the Constitution thoroughly; he believed the good sense set forth by the powerful structure of the document could overcome any obstacle. So, in 1802, when the French closed the lower Mississippi River to American trade, the U.S. offered to purchase the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson stood at a crossroads. The purchase of the land was vital to America’s future, whether it be going to war with France or losing political power. However, there was nothing written in the Constitution about acquisition of new territory. Going against this went against Jefferson’s constitutional philosophy, but his advisors claimed his ability to create a treaty with the power assigned to his branch of government by the document would allow the purchase to be made.

4) What was the motivation behind Jefferson’s sponsorship of the Lewis and Clark expedition and the historical significance of it?

Jefferson began the Western exploration primarily due to the desire of an American breakthrough. The historical significance of the Lewis and Clark expedition was that it opened the United States’ view to the land that lay west of what was considered the only part of the continent considered home. Previously, most Americans thought that the land out west mostly consisted of an uninhabitable, uncultivable desert, and the expedition proved that to be false.

5) What were the causes and the consequences of the War of 1812?

The causes of the War of 1812 began with conflicts in Europe regarding trade, and conflicts on the mainland, as white settlement continued to move westward (especially after the Louisiana Purchase) which collided with Indian territories. The two conflicts eventually intertwined, causing the war. The American trade began to clash with British trade regarding trade between the two, and violence began. By the end of the war in 1814, Anglo-American relations improved relatively, and America was allowed to freely trade with Britain and England. However, for the Indians, the Treaty of Ghent, which stated that the lands taken were to be restored to the respective tribes, was never enforced, and white settlers continued deeper and deeper into the western frontier.


 * Chapter 8: **

1) Why was James Monroe’s presidency referred to as the “Era of Good Feelings,” how did Monroe change presidential politics, and how did the first party system come to an end? Monroe’s presidency was a time of great ambivalence in America, due to his policies  2) What were the causes of the Panic of 1819 and how did the country change as a result? The Panic of 1819 was caused by a period of time where farm goods were demanded at a high rate by foreign countries, which lead to a high increase in prices for American farmers. The increase of price for farm goods led to an increase in demand for land able to be farmed, which thus led to an increase in land prices. Before 1819, the “land boom” was fueled by an availability of easy credit to settlers and speculators. But in 1819, the national bank began tightening credit, calling in loans, and foreclosing mortgages, which led to a state bank failure. This resulted in a financial meltdown. After this depression, Americans had less faith in the national bank, but more importantly put the banking system under a magnifying glass, questioning a functioning system on monitoring state banks and the loans that they give out. 3) How did John Marshall and his court change the status of the Supreme Court? And, how did it change the relationships between state and federal government and between the federal government and business? John Marshall was the Supreme Court’s most dominant chief justice the U.S. has arguably ever known, and redefined the mold. The way he used the power of the court molded the development of the Constitution, strengthening the judicial branch, increasing power of the federal government, and advancing the interests of the propertied and commercial classes.  4) How had the world changed when President James Monroe issued his Monroe Doctrine? What did this declaration show? In the 1820’s, Americans possessed a growing fear that Spain would team up with its European allies to retake the territory lost to the U.S. As a result, the U.S. issued the Monroe Doctrine, a document which basically stated that no foreign countries could colonize in the North America continent, considering any act of the sort to be unfriendly. This declaration showed the expression of the spirit of nationalism that was prominent in the U.S., and established the country as the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere. 5) What was the “Corrupt Bargain” of 1824, why was Andrew Jackson elected in 1828, and what was the significance of his victory? Previously, in presidential elections, the presidential candidates were nominated by caucuses of the two parties in Congress. In 1824, a controversy emerged over this system in the Presidential election. Andrew Jackson received more popular and electoral votes than the other candidates, but he had Henry Clay opposing him. Clay, who was not in the election, put his support behind a Congressman who shared his political views (John Quincy Adams), and with his endorsement, won the election against Jackson in the House. Over time, Adams drew intense resentment from American citizens, primarily in the South, and by 1828, Jackson won the presidency. His win was significant due to the uncorrupt use of the American democratic system.


 * Chapter 9:**

1) Describe the conflict between John C Calhoun and Martin Van Buren. How did Jackson react? What were the outcomes? John C. Calhoun was Vice President, Martin Van Buren was Secretary of State. A quarrel over etiquette created a rift between Jackson and Calhoun, and here Van Buren established his influence over the man, which grew stronger over time. Van Buren also made acquaintances with the Eatons, specifically Mrs. Eaton, recently remarried after becoming a widow, a trait which they both shared.  2) What were the reasons behind Jackson’s war on the Bank of the United States? What were the outcomes of this battle? One of Jackson’s key philosophies while in office was his grave opposition to concentrated powers, even the smallest occurrences. Naturally, he went after the Bank of the United States, the most powerful financial institution in the country, located in Philadelphia, with branches in 29 cities. In addition, he supported the “hard-money” faction after going heavily into debt after the Panic of 1791. Most importantly though, he heeded the words of the citizens who were upset with the national bank, and whether the faction be “hard-money” or “soft-money”. This resulted in the Bank War, a year-long conflict between Jackson and Nicholas Biddle, the president of the Bank during Jackson’s presidency, which evolved into a personal conflict. Jackson did everything he could to weaken the bank’s power, including firing the secretary of the treasury, and placing the government’s deposits in state banks, and eventually the Bank’s terms expired, with Jackson opting not to renew it. 3) What was significant about the appointment of Roger Taney as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court? After John Marshall died, Jackson did not hesitate to appoint one of his most trusted allies to the empty Chief Justice seat, Roger Taney. In the Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge case of 1837, Taney supported building a bridge over the Charles River from Boston to Cambridge, due to the Democrats’ belief that the objective of government was to promote the happiness and wellbeing of its citizens, and declared a state had the right to amend or abrogate a contract if such action was necessary to advance the well-being of the community. This effectively goes against John Marshall’s judiciary review rule stating that the Supreme Court has final say on all rules and laws created and regulated in the states, not the individual state governments.  4) What were the key political differences between the Democrats and the Whigs? The Whigs were formed primarily in opposition to the Democrats, so political differences between the two parties were to be expected. They had polar opposite political philosophies and the character and presentation of their leaders. Democrats believed primarily in America being a land of opportunity, and thus they believed the government’s role should be limited, but powerful enough to remove any obstacles that would get in the way of opportunity. The Whigs, meanwhile, favored expanding power of the federal government, encouraging industry, and general nationalism. The Whigs also opposed westward expansion, a factor that the Democrats heavily pushed.


 * Chapter 10:**

1) Describe the changes in American demographics (characteristics of a group of people) between 1820 and 1860. - Originally birth rates were parallel or lower than death rates, especially in Chesapeake region  - Advances in the medical research field allowed for death rate to decrease 1840-1860  - Decrease in death rate thus let for birth rate increase  - Starting primarily in 1840’s Irish and German immigration played big part 1840-1860  - Irish went towards urban areas, Germans went towards rural areas  - Irish were Catholic, “native” Americans were Protestant, this caused major shift in religious demographics  2) To what extent did the Erie Canal and the early railroads change America? - Erie Canal connected New York to Northwest opened up trade between east and west - railroads allowed for easier travel between north and south, east and west - better trade - allowed goods to be transported to where they were not before - created nationalism/sectionalism - more access to west allowed for increase in white settlement - people less dependent from resources around them, other resources could be imported\ 3) What is an Industrial Revolution? Identify and describe the 3 most important advancements of communication and technology during the Industrial Revolution of mid-19th century America. - An industrial revolution is a rapid change in economy for the better with the introduction of new tools and machines to benefit trade and manufacturing  - Industrial revolution led to industrialization and distinction between classes, as well as more women and children in the workforce  - Telegraph: created by Morse allowed for faster communication across long distances  - McCormick reaper: allowed for faster reaping  - Rotary press: allowed for paper to be made, processed, and distributed more quickly  4) In what ways did business, industry, and labor change in the middle of the 19th century? - Helped create middle/lower classes in America + helped differentiate bet - Woman and immigrants received more job opportunities, mostly in North working in mills - Social mobility – people allowed to climb up social ladder - Urbanization – people leaving rural areas to live in cities 5) Why did the Northeast and Northwest become more interdependent while the South became more isolated during the 1840s and 1850s? - Development of railroads + telegraph allowed for better travel/communication b/w NE and NW  - NE and NW were both becoming industrialized  - South was still agricultural and rural  - South for the most part did not have railroads or telegraphs thus not a part of the interdependence forming between NE and NW  6) Describe women’s roles in society during the middle of the 19th century – make sure to compare the Cult of Domesticity to Republican Motherhood. - Women primarily still helped their husbands - Gained more power in domestic affairs but still not as influential as men - Were not a part of teaching affairs - Women culture formed as a result of more lenience towards women; wives gathered with other wives - Republican Motherhood: mothers in a republic take care of house, teach the children how to be good citizens - Cult of Domesticity: was a RESPONSE, backlash against industrial revolution ideas that women went away to work had more power within house, took care of house, created culture - Both believed women should be at home


 * Chapter 11:**

1) Discuss the relationship between the principles of American capitalism and the spread of cotton and slavery, as well as the interdependence of the north and south.

As the South began to flourish on the profits from cotton trade, slavery became integral to idea of capitalism in the south; the plantation owners did not have to pay the slaves or give them human rights, thus they made more money. They profited from the slaves’ suffering, declaring they superior and playing to the social Darwinism of capitalism. Parallel to the cotton boom was the Northern industrial revolution. Textile mills became integral to Northern economy as cotton was to Southern economy, and just as the South had slaves, the North had factory girls, who were treated better than slaves but paid low wages and worked incredible hours in hostile conditions, essentially a more flattering way of slavery. The textile mills demanded the cotton that the South cultivated, which required more slave labor. The cotton was worked in the textile mills, which required a higher need for girls working in the factories.

3) Describe southern society and culture (make sure to discuss both the socioeconomic hierarchy and the role of women). - Specific hierarchy in south  = aristocrats – plantation owners. Owned many slaves. Seen as representatives of south (DEEP south)  = “southern ladies” – occupied role of wife of plantation owner and not much more. Restricted to life on plantation, thus not well-cultured usually, kept to lady role in family + lady work  - - - men often fought for honor of ladies (cult of honor)  = plain folk – farmers who didn’t necessarily own much land or many slaves. Typical white southerner. Did not have much political power as a group  = hill people – lived in Appalachian mts., generally lived without slaves, opposed slavery and way of life outside of their region, lived harmonious lives in isolation  = small farmers – owned no slaves, little land  - Cult of honor: adopted by white males: an elaborate chivalry which obliged them to defend their “honor”

4) What was slavery like in cities and what was life like for free African Americans? - Slavery in the cities was much less restricted than slavery in the south  - = slaves were not able to be monitored as closely as on a plantation (unable to be used profitably)  - = slaves moved around cities during daytime, doing particular errands  - = slaves were more exposed to ideas of “freedom” than on isolated plantations  - Slaves also worked in mining and lumbering fields, docking sites, and generally performed unskilled jobs  - Because of the lesser restrictions, whites often feared slave rebellions, more so than in the south, and thus slaves were very often sold back to south  - Slaves who bought freedom went to North  = sometimes took up a trade and earned money to buy family members’ freedom  = some slaves obtained wealth and happiness, and even owned slaves  = most lived in poverty, laws preventing them to flourish

1) To what extent was the abolition movement united/divided?
 * Chapter 12:**

There had always been opposition to slavery in America; efforts to limit and/or abolish slavery had been present since before the Revolution. However, in the 19th century, a call for the end of slavery began to form an abolition movement, which united the people’s calls for the abolition of slavery. In addition, abolition propaganda such as newspapers and novels recruited new abolitionists. The abolition movement had several leaders that led the movement with their passionate writings and speeches and radical opinions. However, these opinions also divided the movement, eventually. William Lloyd Garrison, a man who wrote and published the Liberator, eventually started attacking the government and the Constitution, stemming from his arguments against slavery. From thereon, there were those who supported Garrison, and those who supported “immediate abolition gradually accomplished”

2) To what extent was this reform era successful for women?

Women generally did not achieve the goals that were set forth by the feminist movement, which was a result of women working in other reform movements. However, their continued efforts, working for woman’s rights, did actually put their movement on the reform “map”, so to speak. After the first feminist movement died off due to lack of enthusiasm, stemming from the lack of results, women’s rights were more considered in several aspects of American life and American culture. The original movement was ultimately unsuccessful, but did set the stage for later, more successful feminist movements.

3) What are the three most important lessons about attempting to enact change that we can learn from this reform era? Explain your choices.

- Individuality most of reformers were women who worked by themselves, showed women can take charge (Dorothea Dix reformed prison) - Change won’t be effective if changes are expected to be enacted too quickly (abolition movement) - Not everyone will agree with decision first time, debates should be held instead of violence - Education should be for everyone, will lead to better community (women became doctors and writers once educated)

4) Who were the winners and losers of this reform era? Explain your choices.

I believe that the ultimate “winners” of the reform era were the ones that pandered to topics that American society (a hierarchy in which white males stood at the top) didn’t strongly oppose. White males were very content on staying superior to non-whites and non-males (females), so they strongly opposed any reform movements benefitting these areas, which included abolition and feminist causes. Reform in other areas, such as education and prisons, was generally successful.

- Women were winners changed way they were viewed, could be equal to men (Grimke: men and women - African americans were losers because slavery was not abolished - No winners or losers (abolition: one step forward, two steps back) there was nobody who won every single time

How much how soon: sometimes fractures a reform movement Patience/leadership Control extremists!!! (how extreme is too extreme) Avoid violence? Or organize your violence in a way that will get you somewhere Movements start with the individual/allowing the individual to express concern

** 1) Chapter 13 **


Describe the debate over the annexation of Texas. The moment the American settlers in Texas won the territory from Mexico, they wished for annexation into the United States. There was some supporters of annexation in the nation’s capital, but also opponents; Texas, if it were admitted, would be admitted as a slave state, and many northerners opposed having another slave state added to the Union. Even President Jackson was against annexation, fearing large sectional differences.

2) What was the process by which Texas and California joined the United States (include your evaluation of the tactics involved)? Both Texas and California were areas owned by Mexico and desired by the United States. For the most part, both Texas and California were taken from Mexico through sheer force, with the U.S. sending military power down to the respective territories to fight Mexican forces. In the case of Texas, American settlers had came and formed large and powerful settlements that would eventually challenge Mexico’s authority in the territory, until America’s military power intervened and Mexico ceded the territory to America. President Polk devised a plan to take California from Mexico, by moving many Americans into that territory to create settlements and rebel, allowing America to send troops and claim that territory as well. Polk sent Nicholas Trist to negotiate with Mexican leaders, who signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and formally acquired the territory and established boundaries.

3) Describe the changing landscape of American politics in the middle of the 19th century (include the new questions being debated, political party developments, key individuals). In the middle of the 19th century, every American political issue seemed to tie in with the issue of slavery. Polk’s views on the issue, assuming statehood would be a solution to the issue, became a platform that many political parties supported. The Whig Party collapsed as it became irrelevant, and the Republican Party came to be from the ashes of it, as many Whigs quickly joined. The Free-Soil Party also gained power during this time period. Popular sovereignty was introduced in many newly acquired territories, to determine between them whether the state would be slave or free. These developments caused quite a stir in the political landscape, and would continue to do so.

4) What the hell happened in Kansas? When Kansas was adopted by the U.S., it was made a popularly sovereign territory by the government due to the equal yet opposing presences of people with northern and southern values. With the territory’s law and government left up to the people, several violent conflicts broke out. These conflicts, amongst others, included John Brown, a radical abolitionist, and his “army”, who took five supporters of slavery and slaughtered them along the bed of the Pottawatomie River. These various violent conflicts would give the acquired territory the nickname, Bleeding Kansas.

5) Assess this statement: the election of James Buchanan caused the Civil War. In my honest opinion, James Buchanan wasn’t the greatest president America has had, as he caused a little bit of bad luck in the country. Upon his presidency, America entered a depression, which created deeper conflicts between the north and south, who blamed it upon one another. Buchanan was also indecisive, during a period in which being indecisive was probably the worst possible thing to be. His support of the Dred Scott ruling, and adopting Kansas as a slave state caused more sectional divide than any president before him. This ultimately led to the South’s secession. In a way, yes, Buchanan did start the Civil War, but it would be a gross overstatement to say he was the sole causes of it.

**Chapter 14**

1) What advantages did each side have heading into the Civil War? North:   · Larger army    · Better generals    · More supplies   South:   · Fighting on familiar soil    · Mightier drive to win war

2) How did each side mobilize for war?

Both sides were strapped for cash for funding the war, so both sides tried various ways to raise money. The North enacted the Homestead Acts of 1862 which allowed citizens to claim and eventually purchase 160 acres of public land; the Land Grant Act transferred land to the government, which then sold the land to people. Most importantly, however, were the National Bank Acts, which allowed for banks to join the banking system if they had enough capital to invest in the government security. In addition to fundrasing, the North put into place a draft, enforcing all adult males to serve 3 years in the army. The Northern government, also during this time, put into place several acts and amendments that prohibited and eventually abolished slavery.

The Confederation, a brand new nation (so they thought), formed a government that would give more power to the states than to a centralized government. However, this proved faulty in the time of war. The South also enacted a draft.

3) Describe life on the home front during the Civil War.

· South’s economy suffered due to naval blockages, shortages · Women learned to do man jobs · Northern jobs were eliminated, wages cut · Less change · North had more economic change

4) What were the reasons that the North was victorious?

· North had transportation advantages; railroads · Northern population doubled that of south · Northern industry allowed for better mobilization · Farms allowed for food sources as opposed to southern agriculture which flourished on cash crops · Was able to finance war better than south · Wilson’s Creek · Sherman’s march to the sea, destroying EVERYTHING IN THEIR PATH · Capture of Atlanta · Battle of Gettysberg · Battle of Shiloh · Grant’s mission to take all land around Mississippi River


 * Chapter 15:**

At the conclusion of the Civil War what was in need of reconstruction and/or construction (both literally and figuratively)?

At the end of the Civil War, the United States of America and the former Confederate States of America were in disarray. For 5 years, the Union fought the Confederacy to maintain the sanction that was set by the U.S. Constitution. The Civil War left the South in ruins, in every sense of the word (its government destroyed, its peoples’ hopes and bodies broken, its buildings toppled over, and economy shattered). The South was in need of construction. The Union, the FORMER definition of the Union, which included both North and South, also needed to be reconstructed, after the split that had occurred 5 years prior.

1) How did the structure of the U.S. government affect Reconstruction (meaning the ways the different branches operate and interact, separation of powers, etc)?

There was no single group that controlled the South, there were groups that controlled Reconstruction, so thus they would control the outcome of the South. Separation of powers in the main branches of government made it so no one group dominated Reconstruction, as well, by placing limits on each branch. Also, law kept white men from discriminating against freedmen. During Reconstruction, African Americans were able to exercise political rights by voting and holding office. In legislative branch, there was much debate over how seceded states could rejoin the Union. The structure of the government allowed ideas between the President and Congress to go back and forth. This made Reconstruction less slow, but also made the process “fragmented” as no one could decide on a cohesive plan

3) Why did Reconstruction end and what were the results of the abandonment of the reconstruction plans?

Reconstruction officially ended in the Compromise of 1877, where Republican leaders negotiated with Democratic leaders in order for Rutherford B. Hayes to be elected to the Presidential seat on Republican platform. After the Northern forces left the South, conditions gradually went back to the way they were in the antebellum South because there was no enforcement of the laws passed to protect freedmen and grant them rights and opportunities. Freedmen, who needed the most protection from the federal government, quickly deteriorated back into semi-slave status, where white supremacists terrorized blacks into areas where they were not able to practice any sort of rights they received as citizens of the U.S. White men used scare tactics to strip freedmen of their civil rights, as black men could no longer vote, hold office, and own land.

**﻿** ﻿Describe the demographics of those populating the American West in the late 1800s.
 * Chapter 16:**

Before the influx of “settlers” from the east, the American West consisted of many diverse cultures and races, including the British, French, Africans, Asians, Spanish, Mexicans, and maybe most importantly, Indians, tribes of which were scattered all across the land west of the Mississippi River. After the arrival of whites to the western American territories, the demographics that were previously established changed dramatically. The Indian populations immensely decreased as more whites settled, and gradually forced the Indians out of their territories and even killed them, decreasing the number of Indians from 150,000 to 30,000 in five years.

2)

3) What was the allure of the West for migrants from the eastern U.S.? For immigrants from Asia?

For a large portion of eastern U.S. citizens, the west was mythicized as a land of opportunity and adventure. For the people who may have not have had an equitable opportunity at success in the east, the west offered a prospect of hope, and change; to begin life anew. Also appealing was the aspect that the west was considered a new “frontier”; a utopia unchanged (not true) and ripe for settlement. For Asian immigrants, specifically the Chinese, the western America also offered hope, in comparison to their own poverty-stricken land. The Chinese found work as indentured servants. The prospect of finding gold or silver or any other expensive metal also drew large crowds to the frontier.

4) What were the reasons for the transition from subsistence farming to commercial farming in the West? What were the effects of this change?

In the beginning, agricultural farming was a very successful enterprise in the west; several factors played into this, including above-ideal conditions for farming, innovations in dividing and securing land, and a growing foreign market for agricultural products. However, in the mid 1880’s, almost all of this collapsed in on itself. Severe droughts made farming extremely difficult if not impossible. The crop economy busted, with prices going down, while production becoming ever expensive. Farmers were falling farther and farther into debt, and those who did not move back east continued to suffer. Eventually farming in the west was replaced with commercial farming – an attempt to emulate the eastern industrial economy. The commercial economy was successful but also made the farmers severely dependent on others, like banks, railroads, and the markets. Eventually, the commercial farming economy busted too, with an overproduction leading to prices falling and creating a great economic distress.


 * Chapter 17**

1) During the second Industrial Revolution, what business strategies were used to consolidate corporations and change the ways businesses were organized and run?

Use of new technologies such as the assembly line which increased production and also subdivided tasks, which allowed for employees to be interchangable (they didn’t have to be trained, etc.), and took power away from the individual and added more power – and profits - to employers and managers. This was known as Taylorism. Middle management also arose as a popular technique of running a business. A middle manager basically watched over the actual employees.

Vertical (buying out outside vendors/companies to benefit your own company) and horizontal

2) Explain the relationship between industrialization and social Darwinism.

In the 2nd industrial revolution, Social Darwinism as a theory was used by millionaire tycoons and corporation owners like Carnegie and Rockefeller used to justify their actions in the business. They argued that they had “earned” their right to be wealthy and successful, by working hard and simply being better than everyone else (when in reality this was not entirely true as the millionaire business-owning tycoons often played dirtier than their competitors), whereas those who had failed deserved to failed, due to laziness or unqualification (this was not true either). Their argument was similar to Darwin’s theory of natural selection in nature. However, it was not like that, because there were too many outside forces acting on the competition.

3) Describe the efforts of labor to organize, the tactics of unions, and the successes and failures of organized labor during the 2nd IR.

Due to the less-than-ideal conditions in industrial workplaces, such as mines and factories, labor unions were formed to work for workers’ rights and to give them more power in the workplace. Some labor unions include the Knights of Labor, and the American Federation of Laborers (AFL). These unions were mostly lower-middle class to lower class white males; some unions allowed others to be accepted into the unions, but they were not fighting for the same rights as the white males. When conditions became too terrible to bear for the workers, negotiations were started, or strikes broke out, often to the dismay of employers, who tried every way to stop the strike and keep workers in the same conditions. State and federal governments rarely if ever helped unions during strikes, and sometimes sent armies to settle any that occurred.


 * Chapter 18**



1) What were the positives and negatives of urbanization?  · Cities and urban areas offered more opportunities for better, more desirable jobs    · Overpopulation

2) ) During the “Age of the City,” how did American consumer culture and leisure culture each change?

Consumer culture is the buying, spending, and shopping culture that developed. The leisure culture is the culture that formed from having more time off from work and to interact with others, sometimes in consumer areas.

3) ) What is the difference between popular culture and high culture? Explain with specific details and examples.

Pop culture, aka “popular” culture, is a culture primarily consisting of entertainment-related things that the population agrees upon as important and valued. Things may include movies, books, sports, amusement parks, and shopping complexes.

High culture is valued entertainment pertaining to the more wealthy populations in America. Upper classes valued the arts more than the middle and working classes, so high culture may include plays, operas, and museums, as opposed to the entertainment of the lower classes.

4) ) What changes in education occurred during this “Age of the City?”

· Higher demand for education · More public school systems were started · Spread of public primary + secondary education · Colleges + universities proliferating rapidly, partially from the land grant acts. · Blacks and indians were recruited into Hampton Institute, in attempt to civilize them into being more white · All women colleges became more frequent and feminism ran rapid

5) How was urbanization related to industrialization?  · More immigrant workers meant more cheap labor    · Cities were areas with concentrated populations good for industrialization


 * Chapter 19**



1) Describe the political landscape in late 19th century America. The political landscape in late 19th century America was, for the most part, at a stalemate: the two political parties were fighting for control of the federal government, yet the federal government was retaining an unsettling neutrality on several key issues of the time, such as failure of several railroad companies and banks, disagreements on tariffs, and public isolation from the people of the country. Agrarian citizens in the South and West, in an extremely rare occasion, came together and formed Farmers’ Alliances for the benefit of working-class agrarian men; eventually the People’s Party came of this, which would eventually forfeit itself to the Democratic Party.  2) Explain the outcomes of the Presidential elections of 1884, 1888, 1892, and 1896. The election of 1884 pitted the Senator James G. Blaine, known for his rough, instable politics, against Grover Cleveland, known enemy of corruption in New York, yet his term was largely conservative. An associate’s slander against the Catholic Church cost Blaine the election, yet by only a narrow loss. Cleveland’s platform was more against corrupt politicians and their seedy ways, but ultimately did not accomplish many successes in his first term as president. In 1888, Benjamin Harrison won for the Republican party against Cleveland running again. Harrison was a sublime president, remaining passive against several rising issues, yet did pass the Sherman Antitrust Act, and the McKinley Tariff. In 1892, Cleveland was reelected, with his second term much like his first term, but did manage to pass the Interstate Commerce Act. In 1896, William McKinley was elected for the Republican Party, in a heated battle against William Jennings Bryan, in a major debate on whether to include silver as currency. McKinley in office saw many unrest and excitement subside, and dedicated his presidency to higher tariffs, and ultimately passed the Currency Act, which assigned a specific gold value to the dollar. 3) Describe the Farmers’ Alliance movement and the birth of the Populist Party. The Farmers’ Alliance movement came from the upset cries of agrarian workers living in the South and West, away from many of the developments occurring in American cities at the time, who thought they were being treated unfairly. In a rare instance, they bonded and formed Farmers’ Alliances, mostly concerned with local problems; from this movement came the People’s Party, for a larger movement that would enable the agrarian citizens to resist oppressive outside forces and take power from concentrated sources. The Populists soon found themselves the attention they wanted, but unfortunately they could not live up to the hype. While they were partly successful in recruiting members, and establishing themselves on a platform that many could agree and side with, ultimately issues larger than the ones they fought for overcame them, such as the nationwide debate over adopting silver into the American currency. 4) Identify and describe the major problems of 1890s America. 1890’s America saw many problems, politically and economically. The key problem for both was that the federal government was not addressing the rising economic problems. There was a seeming passiveness in the political landscape, and the citizens were becoming more and more concerned about corruption in the government. A key issue was the “free silver” debate, which was to include silver as the base of currency, along with gold. Agrarian Americans in the South and West were becoming increasingly upset with their decreasing fortunes and how they were being treated by the federal government. Eventually, the failure of several railroad companies led to a huge economic depression and crisis, which the government would fail to address.


 * Chapter 20**



1) What were the motivations for US imperialist behavior in the late 19th/early 20th centuries? 2) What were the causes and consequences of the Spanish-American War? Why was it called “A Splendid Little War?” Is that an accurate nickname? Started as an interest in aiding Cuba in the revolt against Spanish, it became an issue of imperialism in America for natural resources, a new market (and strengthen economic ties), and the general spread of democracy. It settled into a war with Spain, to gain control/influence in other Spanish-controlled territories, like Puerto Rico and the Philippines. It lasted only four months, and was described as a "splendid little war" by Secretary of State John Hay, because America gained a lot (resources, influence and power) from such a war that lasted so little time.
 * to gain supplies (natural resources [sugar, oil])
 * markets and customers
 * to compete with other imperial nations
 * a general want for power + success + wealth
 * expansion outside of territories
 * social Darwinism (also a justification)
 * spreading Christianity + democracy
 * military + military bases

The war was partially prompted by two newspaper journalists, Pulitzer and Hearst including exclusive extensive coverage of the revolt in Cuba, with sensational pictures and exaggerations, and occasional fabrications, to sell newspapers. The "yellow journalism" unveiled to many Americans the "conditions" the people of Cuba were in, and sparked a cry to intervene. While the U.S. was only involved for four months 3) Describe American interest and intervention in China. As more and more imperial powers began to involve themselves with China, America began to desire a presence in China as well. This developed with the acquisition of the Philippines. President McKinley issued a statement saying the U.S. wanted to have a presense in China but no “exclusive advantages”. Secretary of State John Hay turned this statement into the Open Door policy, which would hopefully allow the U.S. to trade freely with the Chinese without any military intervention. However this proved futile, as the nationalist group the Boxers held a rebellion, which forced the U.S. to send troops to “quell” the uprising to protect their “sphere” of influence.  4) What were the various results of American imperialistic activity between 1880 and 1910? Due to acquisation of new territories, it opened new markets for U.S. products while simultaneously allowing the U.S. to benefit off of the products from the new territories. America also spread American influence + democracy in these acquired territories. In this time period, America placed emphasis on becoming a world power


 * Chapter 21**

1) In what ways are progressivism, muckrakers, and government officials connected?

Progressivism was a movement that came to be in the late 19th century and early 20th which pushed for progress and reform. They had many new and arguably radical for their time ideals, such as the spirit of antimonopoly, the social gospel, and a push for better opportunities for blacks and women. Many jumped aboard this carousel of progress, including the muckrakers, who were newspaper/magazine journalists and reporters who brought attention to social, economic, and political injustices and corruption, and called for change. These included government officials, who made the decisions and passed laws, in response to the muckrakers.

Muckrakers were journalists who exposed problems Government officials influenced change by creating laws, responding to the muckrakers

2) Who were the 4 most important people of the progressive era? Explain.

- Lincoln Steffins: very influential muckraker, published exposes on boss rule and “boodlers” - W.E.B. Du Boi - Robert La Follette - Anna Howard Shaw

3) To what extent was the capitalist order of big business America being challenged in the progressive era? How successful were the challengers?

In the era of progressivism, opposition to “bigness”, the big businesses, corporations, etc. in America was high in many places. Amongst these places were government officials promising to followers that the problem of bigness will be solved by them, and journalists such as the muckrakers. The newly emerging Socialist party also proved to be a major challenger towards the “bigness”. In addition to those, unions and some government officials challenged bigness. These groups all support the argument that the big business of corporate America were opposed moderately. They opposed the powers in terms of working conditions (wages, working hours, safety conditions, etc.). A movement that was in favor of destroying trusts/monopolies and the concentration of economic power.

1) To what extent can we call Theodore Roosevelt a “progressive president?”
 * Chapter 22**

- Roosevelt had desire to win for government the power to investigate the activities of corporations and publicize the results - Allied himself with progressives that urged regulation of trusts - Sherman Antitrust Act - “square deal”; interstate commerce act of 1887 - Aligned himself with naturalists – to an extent (he pushed for preservation of forests for future economic benefit) - Roosevelt ultimately supported many progressive ideas, but he was not a progressive president, because, while he was supporting the progressives and their ideals, he was also supporting the Republicans and their ideals; he could not please everyone.

2) To what extent did the role of the federal government in American life expand during the Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson presidencies?

The national government went through a serious expansion in the early years of the 20th century, as a result of the progressivism movements that were occurring at the time. Before, it had become weak from the gross placement of power in the hands of political parties, bosses, and trusts, in addition passiveness of several presidents. The acts of subsequent presidents expanded the role of the federal government. Roosevelt, who believed the government should be the ultimate mediator for the public good, tried to gain as much power for the government from institutions like corporations, combinations, and railroad companies; he did this by pushing several acts which would monitor and regulate those said institutions. Taft’s presidency leaned towards the conservatives as opposed to the progressives that Roosevelt held dear. Wilson supported the progressives to the point where he even developed a new progressive program, the “new freedom” which feverishly opposed “bigness”

3) Compare Roosevelt’s New Nationalism to Wilson’s New Freedom.

In September 1910, long after his last term in office, Roosevelt gave a speech in Osawatomie, Kansas, where he laid out a platform for America resting on several progressive ideals, which was subsequently dubbed “New Nationalism”. Two years later, newly elected President Woodrow Wilson, also presented a new progressive program that he dubbed “New Freedom”. Both platforms were both about reform, yet approached it in different ways. Roosevelt said in his speech justice in society would only result from the efforts of a strong government. His speech also addressed economic concentration, with Roosevelt believing the government had complete control over it. Wilson agreed to an extent, favoring the belief that “bigness” was to be stopped, but he believed that it should be destroyed altogether. d

4) How did Theodore Roosevelt change American foreign policy? How did Taft and Wilson approach foreign policy (compared to Roosevelt)?

Whereas Roosevelt was restricted by other executive institutions in the U.S., overseas he could freely exercise his power without interference. He made use of this freedom frequently and thoroughly, such as beefing up the American navy and sending the “great white fleet” to Asia to protect America’s ability to trade, and making an extension to the Monroe Doctrine (the “Roosevelt corollary”) that further cemented America’s presence as most powerful force in the Western Hemisphere. Taft and Wilson were both comparatively more passive compared to Roosevelt’s strong foreign presence.


 * Chapter 23**

1) In what ways was WWI different from previous wars?

World War I was the first modern war; it was the first war to occur after the second industrial revolution, during the “new” age of imperialism and progressivism. For the Eastern hemisphere, it was the first major war that involved multiple countries’ participation, in addition to the first major conflict between the two alliances (the second wasn’t far off after the first one). For America, it was the first major war fought off the western hemisphere, something that ultimately proved to be more affecting than originally thought. The new developments in technology made warfare very much different than from that off previous wars, including the heavy use of trenches and airplanes. Overall the “Great War” was dangerous and unpredictable, in many ways, for all involved.

2) How did the U.S. government organize the war mobilization effort and build public support for the war?

The effort to mobilize the economy required the U.S. federal government to maintain a heavy involvement in industry, agriculture, and other aspects necessary. The government sold “__liberty bonds__” to the American people, which had produced approximately $23 billion. This was in addition to the creation of new taxes, reaping around $10 billion from the America people. To organize the economy to meet the demands of the war, the government created and organized several “war boards” to oversee local and national problems; at the center of this effort was the __War Industries Board__, to coordinate government purchases of military supplies, which proved extremely successful. While a large majority of the country supported America’s intervention in the war, several leaders became wary of opponents to the war, and did several things to stop them, including large propaganda promotions and eventually the Sedition Act, which made illegal any and all opposition to the war. The Selective Service Act was a major draft for troops. Overall, the government prepared for war by almost stripping some of the public’s major rights.

3) What were the American objectives in WWI? Were they met? What overall effect on WWI did the America have?

While America stated it would remain neutral at the start of the war, it leaned towards supporting its ally, Britain. Later, Germany’s actions prompted America with no choice but to enter the war. President Wilson fabricated a justification for intervention in the war by saying there was no material interests in mind; the war was to be a vehicle for establishing a new American-progressivism-influenced world order. This was in addition to aiding Britain and France against Germany and the other Austro-Hungarian armies. While they succeeded in the latter, they obviously did not succeed in the former.

4) Summarize Wilson’s 14 Points and the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. How successful was Wilson with his agenda?

The Fourteen Points was President Wilson’s idealistic vision for which he claimed the nation was fighting for. The fourteen points can be divided into 3 categories: one category was eight recommendations for establishing new countries out of the Austro-Hungarian/Ottoman empires; the second category was a call to manage international affairs; the final category was a proposal for a league of nations. While his plan had many flaws (he had little to nothing on economic rivalries), there was a fervid support for it, and it eventually passed congress and found its way to the Paris Peace Conference

5) Describe the early 20th century turmoil within America concerning African-Americans.

By going to war, African Americans expected newer and better opportunities. Those fighting in the war would gain newfound respect coming home, thinking they would be regarded as heroes. Those at home were able to secure jobs that were before not available, due to being occupied by whites. Overall, a pipe dream emerged of a better African American life. When the war was over, this pipe dream was over, as most of the blacks hired during the war were fired and replaced with whites, and the veteran blacks coming home found no new respect outside of their respective black communities.


 * Chapter 24**

1) What were the causes and details of the industrial boom of the 1920s?

After WWI, the world economy was in shambles. The entire European economy was a wreck, and, for a portion of time, the United States was the only truly healthy industrial power in the world, which the other foreign nations depended on. Technological developments allowed for industry expansion, and the automobile industry thrived, with more vehicles being bought than ever before, more roads being constructed, and more supplies being bought from respective corporations to meet the ever-increasing demands. The industrial boom was, some argued, a miracle; manufacturing output rose by more than 60 percent, per capita income grew by a third, and inflation was unnoticed.

2) What were the reasons for the heightened xenophobia and racial unrest in the 1920s?

The 1920’s presented a heightened regard for the old, “respectable” customs and values of American life, from previous generations, mostly from rural Americans away from the cities, where these values were becoming outdated. A culture formed against these new values, producing many groups and societies against modernist threats to their ways of life. Prohibition was failing, as illegal alcohol distribution was becoming rampant and ever-so-successful, and these opponents clashed with those who supported the prohibition.

3) Describe the outcomes of the presidential elections of 1924 and 1928, and the political legacies of Harding and Coolidge.

The presidential elections of 1924 and 1928 were, for the two main political parties, susceptible to tension within the party, with members of each having clashing views of what direction their party should be taken. These were, for the most part, between those who were for the ideals of the “new era” like Catholics, urban workers, and immigrants, and those who were for preserving old American ideals, such as the ever-increasing fundamentalists. For the Democratic party, the urban wing called for the repeal of prohibition and a denunciation of the Ku Klux Klan, which failed. There was also a deadlock in the balloting for a candidate, pitting Alfred E. Smith supporting urban Democrats against William McAdoo representing rural Democrats. The same schism plagued the 1928 election, where the Democrats lost the presidency, and the government rested in the hands of the Republican Party, under the leadership of Warren Harding. Harding is known for being extremely passive, and very timid in office; he died 2 years after entering office, and was replaced with Calvin Coolidge, who was even more passive. Both were conservative in that they did not push for much social change, such as the issues of racial distress/discrimination. The Harding administration, and to an extent, the Coolidge administration, were also fraught with corruption


 * Chapter 25**

1) What was life like for African, Mexican, and Asian Americans during the Great Depression?

· Life was never all that great for blacks, Mexican, and Asians, economically · During the great depression (GD), their conditions worsened · For blacks/African Americans, the depression was “devastating,” as more than half of all blacks lived in south, working as farmers in an industry that was vigorously failing. Unions for blacks strived in this era, including the NAACP · For Mexicans living in the West, they had even less opportunities for jobs than blacks. They were discriminated against, who had significantly less benefits than white and blacks, including access to education and institutional support · For Asians, also discriminated against by whites, tried fighting back through politics, by forming Japanese American Democratic Clubs, to protect minorities against discrimination. Others tried to fight discrimination by becoming more assimilated. · Every minority group had trouble getting jobs compared to whites, who demanded that they have first access to any job openings, even jobs previously held by minorities and looked down upon by whites

2) What was life like for women during the GD?

· The crisis served to strengthen the belief that women belonged in the home · Same with minorities, men believed any job openings should go to them over women · However, the new group of female workers entering the workfield were precisely wives and mothers · Women did not have many if any opportunities to enter any workplace at anything other than an entry position

3) To what extent did literature, radio, and movies play a role in American life during the GD?

In the late 1920’s and early 30’s, through the Great Depression, American culture went through an almost new awakening. Many of the values that were held true in the past were now being challenged, and the development of many new technologies and trends can be attributed to many Americans wanting to be entertained/taken away from their economic problems without spending too much money. Many fictional novels by writers like John Steinbeck and Richard Wright captured the spirit of endurance and community often displayed in this era. With the increased popularity of the radio, American families would more often than not stay inside at night and gather around the radio to listen to whatever programming was being broadcast. Others turned to the cinema for escape – particularly in comedy movies by the Marx Brothers and Capra.

4) Describe __and evaluate__ the Hoover Administration’s attempts to combat the GD.

· For the most part, the Hoover administration did many things to try and curb the depression; some of these things were counter-productive and just created more havoc, most of it didn’t do much for the economy at all ·

5) What happened in the Presidential election of 1932? What happened during the “interregnum”?

· The election of 1932 pitted Franklin D. Roosevelt against Hoover running for reelection · Because of his presidency, many considered Hoover to be a punchline, for being so passive for all of the unemployed in America · Roosevelt easily won against Hoover · During the “interregnum,” Hoover tried to enact a pledge from Roosevelt to continue the policies of the Hoover administration, which Roosevelt genially refused. When the banking system rapidly collapsed, Hoover asked again, and Roosevelt once again said no   · This would lead to bitterness between the two presidents, particularly when they rode together down Pennsylvania Ave. to Roosevelt’s inauguration, Roosevelt beaming and Hoover glum




 * Chapter 26**

1) What were the major problems FDR faced when taking over the presidency in 1932? When Franklin D. Roosevelt came into office in 1932, almost all of America’s problems centered on the Great Depression and the relating issues that were plaguing the country. This included, but was not limited to, the banking crisis, an unbalanced budget, massive unemployment, and low farm prices. All of these contributed to an uneasy and unconfident economic climate, which FDR faced when he came into office.  2) What were the key aspects of his first 100 days? FDR was especially prolific upon first entering office in creating several new laws and acts to save the financial system in American. Two days after taking office, he closed all the banks in the country for a “bank holiday” while he and Congress discussed reform/legislation on the matter; this resulted in the Emergency Banking Act which ensured the safety of larger banks. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation insured deposits into banks, further ensuring Americans the banks – and their money – were safe. He also got the Agricultural Adjustment Act passed through Congress, and subsequently the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, both of which regulated crop production and paid farmers for growing less. 3) Identify the critics of the New Deal and __explain and evaluate__ their criticisms. Critics of the New Deal most often were from the right of the political spectrum unhappy with the liberal agenda of Roosevelt and the New Deal. The American Liberty League (consisting of fervent Roosevelt opponents and members of the Du Pont family) was formed to engage the public in attacks on the New Deal. However, its criticisms were biased; the party, consisting of northern industrialists, claimed the New Deal “attacked free enterprise.” Dr. Francis E. Townsend led a movement that gathered substantial public support which was based on his Townsend Plan, which stated all Americans over the age of 60 would receive monthly government pensions; this made a significant impact on the public, and led towards the Social Security Act. Two supporters of Roosevelt, Charles E. Coughlin and Huey Long, soon turned away from the president’s policies, calling him “disillusioned” and stating he had not done enough; Long established the Share-Our-Wealth Society, based on his plan of the same name. 4) To what extent was the New Deal era a successful one for African Americans, Native Americans, and women? While First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt actively spoke out against racism and discrimination, the New Deal did relatively little to assist Africa Americans. Roosevelt appointed a number of blacks to second-level positions in his cabinet, but he was afraid of pushing race legislation in fear of losing his white southern supporters, thus the New Deal never made race a significant part of its agenda. The New Deal considered Native Americans a “problem” and, under John Collier, continued a plan well over a century old to assimilate them into the larger society. The ideals of women were not made a large part of the New Deal either, simply because there was not enough backing for it to justify making it legislation.  5) Describe the collision between the New Deal and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court had been striking down several reform programs Roosevelt had created, so he decided to overhaul the court system by adding up to six new justices to the Supreme Court. FDR’s reasoning behind this was to change the ideological balance of the Court. The Court responded by approving several of FDR’s reform programs, and vetoing previous, conservative programs. This was a significant victory for FDR and the New Deal, as the Court no longer posed as big a threat to his plan as it once did.


 * Chapter 27**



1) In what ways was America involved in WWII before being bombed at Pearl Harbor? To what extent did this involvement match the “official” foreign policy of the time? - Fairly involved in war in europe by offering armaments and loans to allied nations with in turn violated their policy of neutrality  2) What were the steps that led the U.S. to declare war and become officially involved in WWII (include dates when available)? - Resentment and tension from failure of payments from WWI debts - Germany, Italy, and Japan align; Germany invade Poland, Russia, France 3) What is the difference between isolationism and limited American internationalism? In what ways was America practicing limited American internationalism in the years between the world wars? - In the leadup to joining WWII, America practiced limiting internationalism by p-roviding assistance to its Allies through implementation of the cash-carry and lend-lease programs. This was different from isolationism because it showed involvement, whereas isolationism would be complete lack of involvement in foreign conflict.  4) What were Italy, Germany, and Japan doing to put the world on a path toward another war? At the time, Italy, Germany, and Japan were greatly challenging the pact for world peace that was created at the end of WWI. Germany, in particular, was violating any and all rules set by the League of Nations, and focused on expanding its rule to surrounding nations, and making alliances with other nations to form a generally hostile group. This included Italy, and Japan, who was in a war with China already


 * Chapter 28**



1) In what places did the U.S. fight WWII? What were some of the key details of the fighting in these locations?   The U.S. first sent combat troops in North Africa. They liberated North Africa from German control by using superior naval and aviation power, in addition to an assisting British force. After the North Africa campaign, they, and eventually Germany. In the Pacific, American forces fought all over on various Japan-occupied islands, to stop the Japanese invasion from spreading.   2)  How did the American people and the American government react to early news of the Holocaust? The American people were horrified of what was going down in the concentration camps in Germany, and pressure to stop the camps built, but ultimately any efforts were futile and struck down. Also, one notable occasion of a boat full of Jewish refugees escaping Europe to the U.S. were refused entry and sent back; this was a deliberate fault by anti-Semetics in the government. 3) In what ways was American home front mobilization during WWII similar to that of WWI? To what extent did this mobilization during WWII help end the Great Depression? USE KEY TERMS!   The primary way the American home front mobilization during WWII was similar to WWI was the creation of a War Production Board. Its purpose was to oversee any and all mobilization efforts and would generally have broad powers over the economy, not unlike the War Industries Board of WWI. However, the WPB was never as powerful as the WIB was, and was frustrating for its lack of coordination in handling deals with small businesses, producers, and large corporations. Eventually any power entrusted in the WPB was transferred to a new office: the Office of War Mobilization, which was only slightly more successful than the WPB. Despite this, the mobilization effort was successful just like its counterpart 30+ years before it; it thrust America from the bad economic period of the Depression by meeting almost all critical war needs (to the point where some would argue it was excessive), and creating a new “synthetic rubber” industry 4) Describe the situation for African Americans and women during WWII.    - Life for African Americans and women were difficult, but patterns of racial/sexist discrimination began to erode    - Military allowed African Americans to enlist after widespread public support    - Women began to enter jobs that were previously not occupied by women    - Increase rate of marriage, as well as lowered the age    5) Describe the situation for Native Americans and Mexican Americans during WWII. Native Americans during the war did not receive any subsidies and work while in their reservations, so WWII saw many Native Americans leaving the reservations and heading towards the cities. This meant a dramatic decrease in power and population for many tribes. 6) Describe and evaluate the situation for Japanese Americans and the changing relationship between the U.S. and China during WWII.  Japanese during the war were viewed as outsiders to the point where in the west they were rounded up and shipped to “internment camps” to be controlled. This was because of strong white animosity towards Japanese. During their occupation of the camps, the Japanese population in the west was all but forgotten about, and following their release, they became more assimilated into white ways. The alliance America had with China improved the status of many Chinese Americans, to the point where the Chinese Exclusion Acts were finally repealed. Racial animosity towards the Chinese did not completely disappear, but it did decline, as Chinese Americans finally began to leave the isolated Chinatowns that they tended to group together in.   7) What were the key events that led to victory for America and its allies in Europe, North Africa, and the Pacific? How did American leaders and forces particularly contribute to these key victories? USE KEY TERMS! America’s first major victory against the European Axis was its North Africa campaign, where Americans fought with the British to push back a German front; under the command of American General George S. Patton and British General Bernard Montgomery, the Allied counteroffensive successfully drove the Germans from North Africa. Later, the Allied invasion of Sicily was also successful; in just over a month, they had already taken the island. Soon, they were moving into the Italian mainland, but in the face of a new German defensive line, did not take Rome until a year later. After effectively stopping the spread of the Axis power in Europe, the Allied forces then moved towards eradicating the Axis for good. This started with the liberation of France; constant bombing of many German cities allowed for it. With D-Day, the Allied front dislodged Germans from the entire coast, and eventually pushed its way into France. The front soon swept its way into Germany, and eventually the country surrendered. Meanwhile, while the war in Europe had ended, the Pacific theatre was still struggling with the Japanese. The Battle of Leyte Gulf effectively destroyed Japan’s entire naval fleet, but the country still showed no sign of surrendering. The U.S. subsequently made the decision to drop two bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, obliterating the cities and killing thousands. After this devastation, Japan finally surrendered, and World War II was over.